Uncategorized – Page 10 – American Environments to 1893

February 14, 2014

Proposed Paper Topic

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For my paper I want too look at the relationship between the United States army and the expansion of the frontier. Much of the scholarship on this topic has focused on the Western Theatre during the Civil War. Few scholarship has focused the impact that the military made on the environment or on the indians living there. I will examine this relationship through the lens of when the army was conducting its massive drive to subdue and control the American Indians left in the West starting around 1866 and ending around 1890. By analyzing personal memoirs or letters from soldiers I hope to compare their perceptions of the frontier, the wild and nature in the frontier with perceptions of the Indians. I will also examine how the environment changed the strategy and makeup of the army. I will look at the concessions they were forced to make and the new technologies they were forced to use. The army was given special powers in an effort to help them keep peace and order. I will examine these laws and compare the military strategies on different frontiers such as the Texas frontier. Through comparisons I look to answer some larger questions about the military effect on the frontier environment.

February 14, 2014

Final Paper Topic

Las Vegas: The Vast Desert of Entertainment

Las Vegas is known for it’s massive Casinos and wild nightlife, and is the biggest city in a state composed almost entirely of desert. I would like to explore how the city of Las Vegas developed, as it started as a railroad town for people heading west and grew into the monstrous city it is today. Las Vegas began to grow at a time when Cuba served the role that Las Vegas serves many today, and I would like to explore why it became such a popular replacement to the tropical paradise of Havana. Also, the Hoover Dam was built in the 1930s and was a massive man-made like, and exploring how this nearby man-made structure helped influence such a massive city of lights would be an intriguing path to study. There is also the obvious Manhattan Project of the 1940s, and exploring how that altered the outside ecosystem as well as how bringing scientists to the city affected the growth is another element I could research.

February 14, 2014

Cronon and the “Concrete Jungle”

William Cronon’s Nature’s Metropolis provided a new take on nature that other scholars we have read thus far have strayed away from, that the growth of cities and existence of nature can coexist. I found William Cronon’s Nature’s Metropolis especially interesting because it expanded on some of the questions I posed as a discussant for The Great New Wilderness Debate. The first two questions I posed were “Is the ‘concrete jungle’ of cities its own form of wilderness?” and “Is modern society and western culture artificial or just advanced/evolved nature?” After reading the first part of Nature’s Metropolis it seems apparent that Cronon does believe that Chicago’s metropolis is a “concrete jungle” and that modern society (not necessarily the artificial aspects) is an advanced form of nature.

As Ian stated below, many of Cronon’s points have to be positioned around the idea that cities are the next step in ecological evolution, and that premise alone indicates that Cronon believes that the ‘concrete jungle’ is just a new form of nature. However, he does not believe that it is artificial. Cronon’s belief that the surrounding nature and ideal location of Chicago makes the city’s growth an ecological evolution contradicts with the idea that I initially proposed, that a city was artificial. This goes to Henry’s point below, and how one defines nature. Henry brings together a key element of Cronon’s argument well: “People generally take nature to refer to features of the earth that are there independent of any manmade processes. However, to Cronon, saying that something is “natural” means it is referring to something that seems to be in its normal place.” By this definition, nothing in a city is artificial because it is a system of interconnected pieces, and because something is composed of elements initially derived from nature, it is just a further ecological expansion.

Ian makes a good point building off of this, that “So many perceive nature to be something void of human contact and interference, yet there is probably no location on Earth that has not been inhabited by humans at some point in time.” It is this point that really helps me buy into the idea that a metropolis and nature do not have to be exclusive. Humans are a part of nature, and the fact that they have advanced further than other natural elements (and have started to use those elements in ways that harm parts of nature) doesn’t make modern society unnatural. Humans should try and preserve the nature they are harming, but as culture has evolved so has nature, even if for the worse.

February 14, 2014

Chigaco: Another Forest of the Wilderness

William Cronon’s Nature’s Metropolis Chicago and The Great West he introduces an interesting set of theories referred to as “booster theories.” These ideas comment on the fact that Chicago would become a great city because of its natural resources, thereby making it the center of trade for the region, its extensive natural routes of transportation, and finally, the global climatic forces that mysteriously made great cities (36). The existence of these theories and the way they are framed by Cronon illustrates an interesting argument for cities being a part of nature. Through these theories, it seems as though it was pre-destined for a city to inhabit these regions, alluding to an idea that God or some other force(s) crafted the region for this specific purpose. It all falls back to the question of if cities are a part of nature, just another “natural” development, or if they are something alien? Through Cronon’s descriptions of these theories, further elaborating on the perfect natural setting for a city, it seems as though he casts his hand with those who perceive cities as the next evolution of a natural ecosystem.

Cronon makes an interesting statement in his description of the rise of Chicago, one which frames the city as something almost organic. In relation to the countryside around the city, Cronon states that it would be “tributary” to give Chicago its new empire (43). I found it a little odd to describe the city in such a way, but when positioning this statement with Cronon’s previous ideas on the city as the next ecological evolution, it makes sense. If the city is part of nature, then it is in fact a “living” piece of the ecosystem, one which requires the resources to continue its existence. From this perspective, the vast country side that surrounds this great metropolis seems only logical as the “food” to help this city grow. Though many would disagree with this interpretation of a city, it is not too far off from our common conceptions of nature, where we often cast the neutral force as evil or against human existence.

I think by looking at Henry’s post on Cronon’s definition of nature, we gain a more concrete understanding of why he frames Chicago as something part of nature. After reading through Henry’s comments, I completely agree with his assessment of Cronon’s perception of natural as “something that seems to be in its normal place” (Henry). So many perceive nature to be something void of human contact and interference, yet there is probably no location on Earth that has not been inhabited by humans at some point in time. Though a city is a massive technological feat, with numerous components encompassing its complex, it can still just be viewed as the next step along ecological evolution, just like the human creation of the boat. If the land around Chicago made it a viable location for the construction of a city, who is to say that this is wrong or against nature? By using nature’s resources for various purposes, could it not be said that humans are simply doing as other animals doing in providing sustenance and shelter for their existence? Though I am sure these questions will lead to numerous amounts of critiques, it is something to think about when articulating a moral argument against human “alteration” of nature.

February 14, 2014

Final Paper Topic

“The Anthracite Alliances: Ethnic Divides in Northeastern Pennsylvania Coal Fields, 1850-1875”

While coal mining had existed in the United States since the early nineteenth century, the development of railroads and the rapid growth of American cities during the middle of the century heightened demand for coal. Anthracite coal fields were found in Northeastern Pennsylvania, and several coal mining companies emerged in this region. The plethora of jobs available as coal miners brought many American immigrants to Pennsylvania, and an ethnic partition of the region quickly ensued as the coal fields came to be dominated by men from Ireland, Wales, Italy, Germany, as well as a host of other European nations. Additionally, canals were carved out of the Pennsylvania landscape in order for mine companies to transport coal into cities like Philadelphia and New York. In my research, I hope to potentially answer some historical questions that arise from these events. I would like to discover how the rapid development of the coal region shaped the social dynamic of the anthracite region, and whether any racial tensions emerged between different ethnic groups, or even between miners and mine owners of different ethnicities. I might also like to find out how the creation of canals in Pennsylvania altered the landscape – both literally and demographically – and how it affected people – perhaps Native Americans – who were previously living on the land. In order to answer these questions, I would try to use a wealth of newspaper articles from the mid-nineteenth century to see how the attraction of coal created divided communities. I could also strive to find correspondence between mine or railroad owners. Lastly, I might like to find any foreign newspapers published at the time not only to learn about the sentiments of the groups of the anthracite region but also to signify the importance of ethnic connections in the coal fields.

February 14, 2014

Final Paper Topic

Daniel Boone and the Appeal of Kentucky Bluegrass: The 1775 Expedition through the Cumberland Gap

Daniel Boone is most well known for his westward exploration of North America. In particular, Boone is often associated with leading settlers from North Carolina and Tennessee through the Cumberland Gap and into Kentucky in 1775. This exploration, however, was not his first foray into Kentucky and the previous journeys had ended in failure. Nevertheless, Boone and others continued to return to Kentucky in spite of Native American threats and violent actions toward Americans. In order to gain a better understanding of why Boone persisted in his attempts to settle Kentucky, it is necessary to determine how the perceived fertility of the land led whites to view the Native Americans’ hunting culture as unworthy of inhabiting such promising agricultural territory. Another important aspect in understanding Boone’s migration is ascertaining how much he viewed the settlement of Kentucky as part of Americans’ rights to the entirety of the North American continent. In order to answer these questions the writings and journals of Daniel Boone and other earlier settlers will be useful, as well as other prominent Americans writing on expansion.

February 14, 2014

Final Paper Topic

Out of Place, In Place: American Utopian Communities and Their Environments, 1830-1890

The number and prominence of utopian communities in America grew during the middle of the nineteenth century. The founders and members of the communities had ideas about the alternative ways of life, and those ideas necessitated living apart from the rest of the country. I hope to explore the ways the members of these communities interacted with and thought about the natural environments where they chose to live. The following historical questions will direct my research. What ideas did members of utopian communities have about their natural environments and their relationships with those environments? What role did ideals of “living close to the land” play in the formation of these communities? How did members of utopian communities practically interact with their environments? Are there any tensions between the ways members of utopian communities thought about and practically lived in their environments? If so, what were those tensions between thinking and living? I expect to use diaries, letters, and periodicals as primary sources for my paper. These sources will give insight into the daily lives of community members as well as insight into their ideas about the communities.

February 14, 2014

Redefining Nature in Cronon’s Argument

In Nature’s Metropolis, the thing that struck me most was how from extremely early on, people seemed absolutely certain that Chicago was destined to become the great metropolis of the American West. We know that for two reasons. The first is economic; Cronon says that the 1830s was a period of ultra-lucrative land speculation, with the area that would become Chicago at the center. He references lots in the area being bought for $29 in 1829 and selling for over $100,000 just four years later. (29) Such an enormous jump in value clearly indicates that people in real estate saw big things in that area’s future. The other way we know Americans’ high hopes for Chicago was simpler—they said it. Cronon quotes 1830s real estate investor Charles Butler as saying the city was “marked for greatness” because the natural features around it made it a great nexus of trade and shipping. (34) So, Chicago’s natural features were the reason Americans saw such bright possibilities for its future. However, it would obviously take decidedly unnatural processes, namely the building of railroads and a canal, to realize Chicago’s potential.

At first, this point made me a bit doubtful in terms of how it supported Cronon’s central argument as presented in the prologue. As I understand it thus far, Cronon’s thesis is that Chicago is the perfect example of how the ideas of city and nature are not exclusive to one another. He seems to be arguing that the city is a part of nature. My initial reaction while reading about the speculation as to Chicago’s bright future was to wonder how true Cronon’s thesis could be given that, while natural features were important to Chiacgo’s value, it would take a radical changing of nature through the building of manmade structures for the metropolis to take form. How natural could the city remain if its existence was predicated on imposing things like railroads on the natural landscape? After grappling with that question for a bit, I came to realize that an important feature of Cronon’s argument was his redefinition of “nature” or “natural.” People generally take nature to refer to features of the earth that are there independent of any manmade processes. However, to Cronon, saying that something is “natural” means it is referring to something that seems to be in its normal place. When he refers to the city, the railroads, or the canal as natural, he means that the people of the time saw those things as proper—they felt they should be there and the reasons for that were practically self-evident given the already existing natural (in the more general definition) features of the land. Understanding that redefinition of “nature” is vital to understanding Cronon’s argument.

February 13, 2014

Final Paper Topic

America’s Last Great Beast: The Bison and Their Hunters

For my paper, I plan on studying the different ways the bison were perceived and interacted with by both Native Americans and American Pioneers/Americans. Through this research, I will compare the similarities and differences between the two people and their interactions with these creatures, noting any cultural norms, economic significance, as well as any other factors that contribute to the way they saw/used the bison. In terms of a time frame, as of now most of the 19^th century is open to explore, but I will most likely narrow this period down as my research accumulates. There are a number of questions I hope to answer through this study regarding the various perceptions of these creatures. Naturally, what differences existed between the ways the American Indians interacted with the bison compared to their human counter parts of American Pioneers and other American citizens? Did the perceptions and interactions with the bison for both sets of people change over time, or did their views generally remain the same even with a dwindling population? Were there different perceptions and usages of the bison in different regions of the West for both parties, i.e. Northwest vs Southwest? Finally, was the destruction of the bison a necessary side-effect of human progress, or was it simply another way to stifle Native lifestyle in an attempt to integrate their people into Anglo American culture? In order to answer these questions, a number of different types of sources addressing both American and Native American perspectives will need to be analyzed. In terms of the American perspective, I believe newspapers from western towns would be a great place to find out some information on their ideas of the bison. Though they will be more difficult to find, any comments made in speeches or memoirs by Native American chiefs will do wonders to display their relationships with this magnificent creatures. Furthermore, by potentially looking at any records of trade or advertisements in newspapers, it will be clear what economic values the bison might have had for white individuals in particular, but also the Native Americans.

February 12, 2014

William Cronon’s Changes in the Land

In Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England, Cronon uses a two-pronged approach to understand how the ecological and cultural changes in New England during colonization. The changes in modes of production between Indian and European dominance are central to his thesis, which contends that the complex ecological and cultural relationships are tied directly to the influence of capitalism in early America. Capitalism drove the most robust changes in not only how the Europeans treated and organized the land, but also how the New England Indians reacted to these changes. Though, “capitalism and environmental degradation went hand in hand,” Cronon makes it a point to show that the Indians also shaped their environment, for better or for worse, just as the Europeans did. (14)

To construct an ecological history, the backbone of evidence came from descriptions made by travelers and naturalists. Part of the difficulty in using this wealth of information was judging both their naturalist skills and ideological commitments. (6) Also, the patchwork nature of local descriptions means they cannot be perfectly representative of a regional landscape. Another source is court, town, or legislative records, but they are more vague. However, these can still be used for relatively accurate accounts of deforestation, the keeping of livestock, conflicts between Indians and colonists over property boundaries, the extermination of predators such as wolves, and similar matters.

For Cronon, part of the challenge of writing this book was using ecological evidence outside of the historical discipline. For example, Ecologists have analyzed tree rings, charcoal deposits, rotting trunks and stumps to discover the history of New England woodlands. (7) Archaeological evidence can be used to assess human interactions with their environment over time. He does a very convincing job at seamlessly weaving the different disciplines together.

Changes in the Land is split into six different sections pertaining to the ecological transformations of New England. The first section focuses on Indian manipulation of the landscape before European contact. He emphasizes that while Europeans first encountering New England believed that they were seeing forests and habitats unchanged by humans, the environment had in fact been modified by the same people for over 10,000 years. Rather than being passive beneficiaries of a virgin landscape, the Indians (and later the Europeans) “sought to give their landscape a new purposefulness, often by simplifying its seemingly chaotic tangle.”(33) The most significant instance of this was the practice of periodically burning the underbrush to make the topography more manageable on foot. The Indians of Southern New England also practiced agriculture, resulting in an ecological patchwork.

The periodicity of New England’s temperate ecosystem resulted in a mobile way of life for the Indians. However, “English fixity sought to replace Indian mobility.”(53) The Indian way resulted in more ephemeral housing and landscape alterations. When the English settled in what were empty settlements, the Indians returned with the season to find the place they knew was gone. The conflict was over two ways of living and using the seasons of the year, and it expressed itself in how two peoples conceived of property, wealth, and boundaries on the landscape.

The landscape was directly affected by different concepts of property and ownership. The Indian idea of property involved co-ownership, or basically no ownership, and resulted in open forests pockmarked by communal fields tended by the women. The English idea of ownership introduced hedges and fences, and established roads and massive pastures for domesticated animals. The deforestation that went along with the English concept of property ownership and land usage changed the ecosystem where it occurred drastically. The English saw it as the “progress of cultivation” rather than deforestation. (126)

The commodification of resources in New England based on capitalist principles not only brought colonists in large enough numbers to transfer epidemic diseases, but also changed how the Indians hunted. Before the introduction of a demand for furs, Indians took only what they needed because a mobile lifestyle did not lend itself to accumulation of wealth. This created needs and wants which were not present in the Indian mode of production before.

Cronon, William. Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. New York: Hill and Wang, 1983.